About the Authors Part I: Foundations Chapter 1: Evolution: A context for comparative learning and cognition 1 Evolution 1.1 Evidence Molecular evidence Embryology Anatomy Biogeography Paleontology Contemporary evidence Domestication 2 Natural selection and adaptation 2.1 Logic of natural selection 2.2 Natural selection Field observations and experiments 2.3 Types of direct fitness Measuring Lifetime Reproductive Success (LRS) 2.4 Natural selection and diversity Traits contributing to survival Correlated traits Direct fitness and adaptation 2.5 From morphology to behavior 2.6 Sexual selection and the brain 3 Diversity of life 3.1 Taxonomy of life 3.2 Animal phyla 3.3 Ediacaran and Cambrian faunas 3.4 Evolution of chordates 3.5 Hominins Early hominins Homo Archaic humans Early and recent modern humans 4 Evolution of the vertebrate brain and behavior 4.1 Key innovations of vertebrates 4.2 Agnathan brains 4.3 Regions of the vertebrate brain Spinal cord Rhombencephalon and mesencephalon Diencephalon 4.4 Telencephalon Subdivisions Fish telencephalon Striatum Limbic system Origin and evolution of the cortex 4.5 Principles of brain size Selective breeding for brain size Relative brain size Comparative and developmental aspects of encephalization Brain size and intelligence Behavioral specializations and the brain Glossary References Chapter 2: Fundamentals of stimulus control 1 Properties of a stimulus 1.1 Evolutionary framework 2 Stimulus control 2.1 Response probability Reflexes 2.2 Response strength 2.3 Associative learning Classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning. Operant (or instrumental) conditioning Motivational control of operant behavior Stimulus control of operant behavior 2.4 Generalization and discrimination 3 Stimulus control over other properties of behavior 3.1 What does the behavior look like? 3.2 When does the behavior occur? 3.3 Where does the behavior occur? 4 The nature of the reinforcer 5 Contiguity, contingency, and relative validity 6 Summing up Glossary References Part II: Learning Chapter 3: Learning in simple systems 1 Phenomena and mechanisms 1.1 What is a learning phenomenon? 1.2 Levels of mechanistic analysis 1.3 Species similarity in learning phenomena 1.4 Species differences in learning phenomena 2 Invertebrate learning 2.1 Cnidarian neurons 2.2 The nervous systems of bilateral animals 2.3 Properties of habituation 2.4 Habituation in cnidarians 3 Behavioral and neural plasticity in nonassociative learning 3.1 Habituation and dishabituation 3.2 Short-term and long-term habituation 3.3 Neural basis of short-term habituation: C. elegans 3.4 Neural basis of short-term habituation: A. californica 3.5 Neural basis of long-term habituation: C. elegans 3.6 Neural basis of long-term habituation: A. californica 4 Cellular bases of sensitization 4.1 Short-term sensitization 4.2 Dishabituation and short-term sensitization in A. californica 4.3 Long-term sensitization 4.4 Evolution of sensitization in mollusks 4.5 Generality of the neural mechanisms of nonassociative learning 5 Associative learning and cognition in invertebrates 5.1 Associative learning in basal invertebrates 5.2 Associative learning in mollusks 5.3 Associative learning in arthropods 5.4 Learning mutants in fruit flies 5.5 Invertebrate cognition 5.6 Parallel evolution from common cell-molecular mechanisms 6 Behavioral plasticity in aneural organisms 6.1 Some conceptual issues 6.2 Learning in aneural organisms Bacteria and archaeon Protists Plants Fungi Basal animal phyla 6.3 What are nervous systems good for? Glossary References Chapter 4: Associative learning: Acquisition 1 Introduction 2 Associative processes 2.1 Contiguity Contiguity in Pavlovian conditioning Contiguity in operant conditioning 2.2 Comparative and developmental generality of contiguity 2.3 Learning/performance dichotomy 2.4 What is learned in Pavlovian conditioning? 2.5 What is learned in operant conditioning? 2.6 Hierarchical associations: Occasion setting 2.7 Neurobiology of stimulus contiguity in mammals Long-term potentiation and depression From brain slice to behavior SàS and SàR associations in the brain 3 Acquisition factors 3.1 Beyond contiguity: Salience, magnitude, and temporal factors 3.2 Signalàoutcome relevance 3.3 Signal-context interactions 3.4 Conditioned reinforcement 3.5 Operant contingencies Positive reinforcement Punishment Omission Escape Avoidance 4 Inhibitory conditioning 4.1 Summation and retardation tests Detection issues Control issues Reduced generalized excitation Differential generalization of excitation Attentional enhancement Attentional decrement Contextual blocking Stimulus generalization decrement 4.2 Neurobiology of inhibitory conditioning 5 Schedules of reinforcement 6 What is a reinforcer? 7 Situational generality of associative learning 7.1 Interoceptive CSs 7.2 Sexual reinforcement 7.3 Conditioned immunomodulation 7.4 Conditioning of allergies 7.5 Drug tolerance Glossary References Chapter 5: Associative learning: Integration 1 Introduction 2 Extinction and learning 2.1 Procedure, phenomenon, mechanism 2.2 Unlearning vs. parallel associations 3 Perception and learning 3.1 Compound conditioning 3.2 Overshadowing and blocking effects 3.3 Signal-context interactions 4 Attention and learning 4.1 Latent inhibition 4.2 Comparative studies of latent inhibition 4.3 Intra- vs. extra-dimensional transfer 4.4 Perceptual learning 5 Motivation and learning 5.1 Incentive value 5.2 Wanting and liking 6 Emotion and learning 6.1 Fear/threat 6.2 Neurobiology of fear Signal and contextual fear Fear extinction Consolidation and reconsolidation of fear memories 6.3 Frustration Aftereffects Anticipatory effects Comparative and developmental studies 6.4 Frustration, memory update, and emotional activation 6.5 Neurobiology of fear and frustration in vertebrates 7 Choice and learning 7.1 Matching 7.2 Matching and drug dependence 7.3 Undermatching, overmatching, and maximizing 7.4 Delay discounting Glossary References Chapter 6: Associative learning: Interactions 1 Introduction 2 Interactions between elicited and reinforced behaviors 2.1 Equipotentiality 2.2 Misbehavior 2.3 Adjunctive behavior Brain mechanisms of schedule-induced polydipsia 2.4 A defensive response system 3 Escape and avoidance learning 3.1 Avoidance conditioning 3.2 Escape conditioning 3.3 Neurobiology of avoidance learning 3.4 Learned helplessness 4 Impulsivity and self-control 4.1 The marshmallow test 4.2 Self-control in other animals 4.3 Substance-use disorders and impulsivity 4.4 Neurobiology of substance use disorders Reward circuitry Withdrawal symptoms and circuitry 5 Pavlovian control of operant behavior 5.1 Conditioned suppression of operant behavior 5.2 Pavlovian-instrumental transfer General and specific transfer Neurobiology of PIT Relevance of PIT Glossary References Chapter 7: Social learning 1 Introduction 2 From individual to social learning 2.1 Individual recognition 2.2 Kin recognition 2.3 Feeding and social learning 2.4 Predator recognition 2.5 Social reinforcement 2.6 From social reinforcement to reproductive success 2.7 Imitation 3 Imprinting in precocial birds 3.1 Properties 3.2 Motivational factors 3.3 Learning factors 3.4 Neurobiology of imprinting 3.5 Sexual imprinting 3.6 Imprinting-like phenomena in other species 4 Early social learning 4.1 Attachment 4.2 Attachment in primates 4.3 Early social restriction 5 Tool use and culture 6 Teaching Glossary References Part III: Cognition Chapter 8: Timing behavior 1 Introduction: Cognition 2 Circadian Timing 2.1 Behavioral evidence 2.2 Neurobiology of circadian rhythms 3 Interval Timing 3.1 Scalar timing theory Time-production tasks Time-perception tasks 3.2 Oscillators and nonlinear timing 3.3 Time as a stimulus property Acquisition Extinction Postextinction relapse of the CR Cue competition and integration based on timing 4 Where is timing in models of conditioning? 5 Can nonhuman animals time travel? Glossary References Chapter 9: Spatial behavior 1 Introduction: Spatial behavior 2 Migration and large-scale spatial behavior 3 Small-scale navigation 3.1 Path integration 3.2 Beacon homing 3.3 Route behavior 3.4 Map-like spatial behavior 4 Location as a stimulus property 4.1 Acquisition and extinction 4.2 Generalization and discrimination 4.3 Cue competition 5 Spatial integration 6 Where is location in models of conditioning? 7 Neurobiology of spatial behavior 7.1 Insects 7.2 Mammals Glossary References Chapter 10: Categories, concepts, and numerical competence 1 Conceptual behavior 2 Generalization and discrimination revisited 3 Acquired distinctiveness and equivalence 3.1 Procedures 3.2 Stimulus equivalence and emergent relations 3.3 Real-world applications 4 Multiple-exemplar training 4.1 Perceptual categories Basic level Subordinate level Superordinate level 4.2 Relational categories 4.3 Relation between relations 5 Theories and models of conceptual behavior 5.1 Linear feature models 5.2 Exemplar theory 5.3 Prototype theory 5.4 Neurobiology and neural networks 6 Numerical competence 6.1 Approximate numerical magnitude 6.2 Counting Glossary References Chapter 11: Communication and language 1 Animal signals 2 Avian vocal learning 2.1 Calls 2.2 Vocal learning 2.3 Age-dependent plasticity 2.4 Dialects 2.5 Age-independent plasticity 2.6 Brain mechanisms avian song learning Brain circuit Patterns of gene expression 2.7 From proximate to ultimate causation 3 Referential calls in mammals 4 Human language 4.2 Properties 4.2 Basic functions 4.3 Verbal operants Intraverbals, mands, and tacts 5 Teaching language to nonhuman animals 5.1 Brief history 5.2 Language production Hand gestures Symbols 5.3 Language comprehension 5.4 Language training in nonprimate species Glossary References

• Physiological & neuro-psychology, biopsychology

• Animal behaviour

• Tertiary Education (US: College)

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