An authoritative discussion of safety considerations for professionals and Operators working with or around nitrogen and other inert gases
In Hazards of Nitrogen and Other Inert Gases: How They Can Be Safely Managed, experienced refinery supervisor and manager M. Darryl Yoes delivers a thorough discussion of the use of nitrogen and other inert gases in the refining industry and other industries where they are commonly used. The author includes a complete exploration of the hazards of working with and around nitrogen, as well as case studies of incidents involving nitrogen in both gas and cryogenic forms, and other inert gases, including carbon dioxide, argon, and neon.
Yoes walks readers through the most critical safety aspects of working with asphyxiants such as inert confined space entry and discusses how to avoid and prevent catastrophic incidents. The book offers self-quizzes, essential terms, key workflows, and checklists for routine practice.
Readers will also find:
A thorough background on nitrogen use and the hazards that flow from working with it
Comprehensive explorations of incidents involving asphyxiation, hypoxia, and cold burns resulting from nitrogen (gas and liquid form) and other inert gases
Practical discussions of the prevention of catastrophic incidents involving inert gases
Additional discussions of other inert gases, including carbon dioxide and helium
Perfect for all operations personnel who work with or around asphyxiants, including petroleum refining and petrochemical plant operators, line supervisors, and process and mechanical engineers, this book will also benefit new operators and advanced students learning about or working with nitrogen and other inert gases.
Table of Contents Preface About the Author Chapter 1: The Properties, Uses, and Safety Hazards of Nitrogen. Chapter 2: The Properties, Uses, and Safety Hazards of Other Inert Gases: a: Argon (Ar) b: Carbon Dioxide (CO2) c: Carbon Monoxide (CO) d: Helium (He) e: Neon (Ne) f: Krypton (Kr) g: Xenon (Xe) h: Light Hydrocarbons (Methane (CH-4), Ethane (CH-6), Propane (CH-8), Butane (CH-10), Pentane (CH-12), and their olefin cousins (Ethylene, Propylene, Butylene, etc.) Note: Hydrocarbons are NOT inert and are flammable or explosive. They are included here since some of the effects on personnel are similar. Chapter 3: The Effects of Nitrogen and Other Inert Gases on the Human Body (Oxygen Deprivation and Hypoxia). Chapter 4: Protection for Personnel Against Inert Gas Asphyxiation and/or Cold Burns. Chapter 5: Confined Space Entry – The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Standard (29 CFR 1910.146), and Some Key OSHA “Letters of Interpretation”. Chapter 6: The Hazard of Contaminated Breathing Air and How it Can Kill. Chapter 7: The Most Frequent Causes of Nitrogen Asphyxiation and How to Address Them. Chapter 8: More on Safe Utility Connections. Chapter 9: The Hazards of Inert Entry and an Overview of the Process (Includes Case Studies of What Has Happened). Chapter 10: Carbon Capture, Use and Storage (CCUS) Chapter 11: Nitrogen Asphyxiation Case Studies, Including Case Studies of Asphyxiation by Other Inert Gases: a: Incident Case Study Number 1: Liquid Nitrogen Release at Foundation Food Group (6 Fatalities, 4 serious Injuries). The incident occurred in Gainesville, Georgia - Incident Date: January 28, 2021 b:Incident Case Study Number 2: Fatal Nitrogen Exposure at Valero Delaware City Refinery (2 Fatalities). The incident occurred in Delaware City, Delaware - Incident Date: November 5, 2005 c:Incident Case Study Number 3: Alaska North Slope Oil-Service Company Fatal Argon Exposure During Welding Operations (1 Fatality, 2 Injuries). The incident occurred at The North Slope of Alaska - Incident Date: April 29, 1994 d:Incident Case Study Number 4: Fatal Argon Exposure in Asia during Pipe Welding Operations (1 Fatality). The incident occurred at a Singapore worksite during construction/modifications – Incident Date: November 24, 2020 e.Incident Case Study Number 5: Carbon Dioxide Asphyxiation at a Music and Performing Arts Theatre (1 Fatality). The incident occurred at Pigeon Forge, Tennessee - Incident Date: March 3, 2018 f.Incident Case Study Number 6: An employer’s failure to follow federal safety procedures left a 30-year-old worker suffering fatal asphyxiation as they tried to make repairs inside a water tank at a McClain County well site in September 2023. Following the incident, investigators found several asphyxiants in the tank, resulting in the employee’s death. g.Incident Case Study Number 7: The employee had been pressure testing a section of piping with nitrogen and was overcome by the inert gas. His coworkers, who had left him the previous evening, found him the following morning. h.Incident Case Study Number 8: An explosion occurred while Liquid nitrogen was unloaded at an ice cream facility (ten injured). i.Incident Case Study Number 9 Fatality of Welder in a Confined Space (Welding in the Presence of Argon) A contract welder was overcome and died due to the lack of oxygen while troubleshooting an argon dam in a 30-inch section of piping. The incident occurred on September 15, 2021. j.Incident Case Study Number 10 (Deaths due to Attempted Rescue): This case study includes several additional brief reports of asphyxiation incidents involving inert gas. This includes a review of seven (7) different incidents resulting in sixteen (16) deaths and several injuries. These brief reports discuss the causal factors involved in each incident and key lessons learned. As you may expect, there are a number of parallels involved in the lessons learned. Chapter 12: Summary of Additional Actions to Help Prevent Asphyxiation Incidents at our Facilities: Chapter 13: Additional Discussion of Liquid Nitrogen Use in Ice Cream Shops: End of Book Quiz Appendices: 1:Answers to the End of Chapter Quizzes. 2:Answers to the End of Book Quiz. 3:Summary of US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Nitrogen Asphyxiation Incidents (From the OSHA Database) Table of Contents
Preface
About the Author
Chapter 1: The Properties, Uses, and Safety Hazards of Nitrogen.
Chapter 2: The Properties, Uses, and Safety Hazards of Other Inert Gases:
a: Argon (Ar)
b: Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
c: Carbon Monoxide (CO)
d: Helium (He)
e: Neon (Ne)
f: Krypton (Kr)
g: Xenon (Xe)
h: Light Hydrocarbons (Methane (CH-4), Ethane (CH-6), Propane (CH-8), Butane (CH-10), Pentane (CH-12), and their olefin cousins (Ethylene, Propylene, Butylene, etc.)
Note:
Hydrocarbons are NOT inert and are flammable or explosive. They are included here since some of the effects on personnel are similar.
Chapter 3: The Effects of Nitrogen and Other Inert Gases on the Human Body (Oxygen Deprivation and Hypoxia).
Chapter 4: Protection for Personnel Against Inert Gas Asphyxiation and/or Cold Burns.
Chapter 5: Confined Space Entry – The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Standard (29 CFR 1910.146), and Some Key OSHA “Letters of Interpretation”.
Chapter 6: The Hazard of Contaminated Breathing Air and How it Can Kill.
Chapter 7: The Most Frequent Causes of Nitrogen Asphyxiation and How to Address Them.
Chapter 8: More on Safe Utility Connections.
Chapter 9: The Hazards of Inert Entry and an Overview of the Process (Includes Case Studies of What Has Happened).
Chapter 10: Carbon Capture, Use and Storage (CCUS)
Chapter 11: Nitrogen Asphyxiation Case Studies, Including Case Studies of Asphyxiation by Other Inert Gases:
a: Incident Case Study Number 1:
Liquid Nitrogen Release at Foundation Food Group (6 Fatalities, 4 serious Injuries).
The incident occurred in Gainesville, Georgia - Incident Date: January 28, 2021
b: Incident Case Study Number 2:
Fatal Nitrogen Exposure at Valero Delaware City Refinery (2 Fatalities).
The incident occurred in Delaware City, Delaware - Incident Date: November 5, 2005
c: Incident Case Study Number 3:
Alaska North Slope Oil-Service Company
Fatal Argon Exposure During Welding Operations (1 Fatality, 2 Injuries).
The incident occurred at The North Slope of Alaska - Incident Date: April 29, 1994
d: Incident Case Study Number 4:
Fatal Argon Exposure in Asia during Pipe Welding Operations (1 Fatality).
The incident occurred at a Singapore worksite during construction/modifications – Incident Date: November 24, 2020
e. Incident Case Study Number 5:
Carbon Dioxide Asphyxiation at a Music and Performing Arts Theatre (1 Fatality).
The incident occurred at Pigeon Forge, Tennessee - Incident Date: March 3, 2018
f. Incident Case Study Number 6:
An employer’s failure to follow federal safety procedures left a 30-year-old worker suffering fatal asphyxiation as they tried to make repairs inside a water tank at a McClain County well site in September 2023. Following the incident, investigators found several asphyxiants in the tank, resulting in the employee’s death.
g. Incident Case Study Number 7:
The employee had been pressure testing a section of piping with nitrogen and was overcome by the inert gas. His coworkers, who had left him the previous evening, found him the following morning.
h. Incident Case Study Number 8:
An explosion occurred while Liquid nitrogen was unloaded at an ice cream facility (ten injured).
i. Incident Case Study Number 9 Fatality of Welder in a Confined Space
(Welding in the Presence of Argon)
A contract welder was overcome and died due to the lack of oxygen while troubleshooting an argon dam in a 30-inch section of piping. The incident occurred on September 15, 2021.
j. Incident Case Study Number 10 (Deaths due to Attempted Rescue):
This case study includes several additional brief reports of asphyxiation incidents involving inert gas.
This includes a review of seven (7) different incidents resulting in sixteen (16) deaths and several injuries. These brief reports discuss the causal factors involved in each incident and key lessons learned. As you may expect, there are a number of parallels involved in the lessons learned.
Chapter 12: Summary of Additional Actions to Help Prevent Asphyxiation Incidents at our Facilities:
Chapter 13: Additional Discussion of Liquid Nitrogen Use in Ice Cream Shops:
End of Book Quiz
Appendices:
1: Answers to the End of Chapter Quizzes.
2: Answers to the End of Book Quiz.
3: Summary of US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Nitrogen Asphyxiation Incidents (From the OSHA Database)
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