List of tables List of figures List of rules Preface Acknowledgements Treatment of examples Abbreviations for sources of examples Abbreviations in grammatical glosses Treatment of examples 1 Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Previous research 1.3 The Assiniboine Language Levin (1964) 1.4 Sources of data 1.5 Typological sketch 1.6 Analytic framework 1.7 Plains Sign Talk as integral to Nakoda Language 1.8 Organization of the grammar 2 Phonology 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Phoneme inventory 2.3 Intervocalic voicing 2.4 Stress 2.5 Vowel length 2.6 Phoneme descriptions 2.6.1 Obstruents 2.6.1.1 Stops and affricates 2.6.1.2 Fricatives 2.6.2 Sonorants 2.6.2.1 Nasals 2.6.2.2 Glottal stop 2.6.2.3 Glides 2.6.3 Vowels 2.6.3.1 Oral vowels 2.6.3.2 Nasal vowels 2.7 Syllable structure 2.7.1 Syllable canon 2.7.2 Syllabification of CVC roots 2.8 Phonotactics 2.8.1 kc, pc 2.8.1.1 kc 2.8.1.2 pc 2.8.2 sc, šc 2.8.3 kw 2.8.4 tk 2.8.5 sw 2.8.6 km, kn, mn 2.9. Phonetic effects in monosyllabic clusters 2.10 Sound symbolism 2.11 Metathesis 2.12 Ablaut 2.13 Vocalic nasalization 2.14 Vowel hiatus 2.14.1 Glide or glottal epenthesis 2.14.2 Vowel coalescence 2.14.3 Vowel deletion 2.15 Morphophonemic processes 2.15.1 Boundaries 2.15.2 Dakota Accent Rule (dar) 2.15.3 Compound Accent Rule (car) 2.15.4 Lexical stress 2.15.5 Rhythmic Stress Patterning (rsp) 2.15.5.1 Word level rsp 2.15.5.2 rsp1 and modality particles 2.15.5.3 Phrase level rsp 2.16 Other morphophonological processes 2.16.1 Degemination 2.16.2 Triconsonantal simplification 2.16.3 Fricative devoicing 2.16.4 Coda nasalization 2.16.5 Velar palatalization (vel palat) 2.16.5.1 Velar palatalization and active/stative verb stems 2.16.5.1.1 Instrumental prefix ka ‘by a blow; by external pressure 2.16.5.1.2 kʰí ‘mutual contact, effect’ 2.16.5.1.3 Kinship suffix-ku (3rd person possessive) 2.16.5.1.4 Suffix-ka ‘rather, kind of’ 2.16.5.1.5 Enclitic ken neg 2.16.5.2 Adverbs and velar palatalization 2.16.5.3 Coronal dissimilation 2.17 Phrase-level phonology 2.17.1 Vowel devoicing 2.17.2 Vowel syncope 3 Nouns and Pronouns 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Inherent nouns 3.2.1 Nominal roots 3.2.1.1 CV roots 3.2.1.2 Truncated roots 3.2.1.3 CVC roots 3.2.1.4 Multisyllabic roots with final-e 3.3 Noun derivation 3.3.1 Prefixation 3.3.1.1 Locative prefixes 3.3.1.2 Indefinite wa- 3.3.2 Ablaut 3.3.3 Nominalizing enclitics 3.3.3.1-sʼA (hab) 3.3.3.2-pi (nom) 3.3.3.3-na (nom) 3.3.3.4 Combination of locatives and enclitic 3.3.3.5 Combinations of enclitics 3.3.4 Suffixes 3.3.4.1 Specificity 3.3.4.1.1-c specific (spc) 3.3.4.1.2-ȟ specific (spc) 3.3.4.1.3-tu ‘at a particular point (time or place) 3.3.4.1.4 Suffix-ka (nom) 3.3.4.1.5 Suffix-š ‘ameliorating; delimiting’ (delim) 3.3.5 Compound nouns 3.3.6. Loanwords and coining 3.4 Pluralization 3.5 Noun modification 3.5.1 Possession 3.5.1.1 Possessive pronominal prefixes 3.5.1.2 Possession of objects in nature 3.5.1.3 Body parts 3.5.1.4 Possession by means of stative verbs 3.5.1.5 Possession by means of context only 3.5.1.6 Reflexive possession (suus) 3.5.2 Noun modification other than possession 3.6 Independent pronouns 3.6.1 Independent personal pronouns 3.6.1.1 The į́š paradigm 3.6.1.2 Th iyé paradigm 3.6.2 Demonstrative pronouns 3.6.3 Indefinite pronouns 3.6.4 Pronoun modifier -kʼe  emphasis (emph) 3.7 Naming 3.7.1 ‘horse’ 3.7.2 Proper names in-na 4. Kinship 4.1. Kinship system 4.2. Morphology of kinship terms 4.2.1. mi-‘my’ 4.2.2. ni-‘your’ 4.2.3.-(t)ku ‘his/her’ 4.2.4.-na 4.2.5.-šį 4.2.6.-ka 4.2.7.-ya 4.2.8. Unexplained morphemes 4.3. Respect/avoidance speech 4.4. “Relative of a relative” 5. Adverbs 5.1. Introduction 5.2. Morphology of adverbs 5.2.1. Basic adverbs 5.2.2. Demonstrative adverbs 5.2.3. Interrogative adverbs 5.2.4. Logical connectives 5.3. Derived Adverbs 5.2.1. Prefixation 5.2.1.1 Adverbial į́ 5.2.1.2. Locative prefixes 5.3.2. Suffixation 5.3.2.1. Suffix descriptions 5.3.2.1.1.-cʰehą ‘ago; in the past’ 5.3.2.1.2.-eyasą ‘throughout’ 5.3.2.1.3.-hą ‘at a particular time’ 5.3.2.1.4.-hųní ‘completed action’ 5.3.2.1.5.-ȟ intensity, augmentation; specificity 5.3.2.1.6.-ka ‘rather, somewhat’ 5.3.2.1.7.-ken ‘in the manner of’ 5.3.2.1.8.-kiya ~ kiyą ‘in that direction, towards’ 5.3.2.1.9.-kʰetu ‘be thus’ 5.3.2.1.10.-kʰi ‘in a general location’ 5.3.2.1.11.-kʰiya ‘in a general direction’ 5.3.2.1.12.-m,-n 5.3.2.1.13.-na,-yena 5.3.2.1.14.-pʰatahą ‘moving from’ 5.3.2.1.15. Adversative-š 5.3.2.1.16.-šteȟ ‘in the manner of; like unto’ 5.3.2.1.17.-tahą ‘from that point on; after that’ 5.3.2.1.18.-tu ‘at a particular point (time or place) 5.3.2.1.19.-ya ‘in that manner’ 5.3.2.1.20.-yaken ‘in the manner of’ 5.3.2.1.21. Ablaut 5.3.2.2. Suffix combinations 5.3.3. Reduplication 5.3.4. Noun-adverb compounds 5.4. Semantic distinctions in words for ‘now’ and ‘when’ 5.4.1. nąkáhą vs. waná 5.4.2. šten vs. hą́ta ‘when 5.5. Adverbial phrases 5.6. Clause modifiers 6. Verbs 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Canonical structure of verbs 6.3. Verb roots 6.3.1. Monosyllabic roots 6.3.2. Multisyllabic roots 6.3.3. CVC roots 6.4. Inflection 6.4.1. Pronominal affixes 6.4.2. Animacy and number 6.5. Active verbs 6.5.1. Regular active verbs 6.5.2. Y-stem active verbs 6.5.3. Verbs with singular pronominals m-and n- 6.5.3.1. Nasal active verbs 6.5.3.2. Reflexive verbs in įcʼi 6.5.4. Irregular active verbs of speaking 6.5.4.1. eyÁ, žeyÁ 6.5.4.2. Reportative verb káyA (rprt) 6.6. Stative verbs 6.6.1. Irregular verb tʰáwa ‘be one’s; be the owner of’ 6.6.2. Generic verbs écʰa, nécʰa, žécʰa 6.7. Impersonal verbs 6.8. Number agreement 6.8.1. Animate participants 6.8.1.1 Animate subjects 6.8.1.2. Animate objects 6.8.1.3. Ambiguity in animate plural forms 6.8.2. Inanimate participants 6.8.2.1. Inanimate subjects 6.8.2.2. Inanimate objects 6.8.3. Placement of pronominal affixes 6.8.3.1. Pattern 1: prefixed 6.8.3.2. Pattern 2: infixed 6.8.3.3. Pattern 3: mixed 6.8.4. Multiple inflection of subject pronominals in y-stem verbs 6.8.5. Order of subject and object pronominal affixes 6.9. Prefixes 6.9.1. Locative prefixes 6.9.2. Instrumental prefixes 6.9.2.1. Instrumental prefix yu-and adverbs 6.9.2.2. Instrumental prefixes compared to those in Lakota 6.9.3. Other prefixes 6.9.3.1.wa-‘things, indefinite objects 6.9.3.2. Vertitive ki ‘back, as to an original state or place’ 6.9.3.3. kʰi ‘two, in two, in half, through the middle’ 6.9.3.4. ícʰi ‘together’ 6.10. Suffixes 6.10.1.-cʰuna ‘to keep doing’ (freq) 6.10.2.-huni Completed action, ‘at last, finally’ (fin) 6.10.3-ȟ Intensifying (intns) 6.10.4.-ȟtįyĄ intensifying (intns), focus (foc), emphasis (emph) 6.10.5.-ka,-keca Attenuating, ‘be kind of, rather, sort of’1 6.10.6.-pas ‘of that kind, like that kind’ 6.10.7. Exhortative-s (exhort) 6.10.8. Adversative-š 6.10.9. Suffixes with no definite meaning 6.11. Verb Reduplication 6.11.1. Morphology of verb reduplication 6.11.2. Semantic effects of verb reduplication 6.12. Specialized semantic categories 6.12.1. Verbs of texture 6.12.1.1 Brittle 6.12.1.2. Soft 6.12.1.3. Fine particles 6.12.1.4. Hard; firm 6.12.1.5. Smooth, to smooth flat 6.12.1.6. Verbs of filling 6.12.2. Positional verbs 6.12.2.1. Animate reference 6.12.2.2. Inanimate reference 6.12.3. Existential verb yukʰą́ 7. The ki morphemes 7.1. Structural properties of the ki morphemes 7.2. Description of the morphemes 7.2.1. Reflexive possessive 7.2.2. Dative 7.2.3. Benefactive 7.2.3.1. Benefactive and káǧA ‘make’ 7.2.3.2 kícicaǧA ‘make on behalf of someone’ 7.2.3.3. Benefactive and motion verbs 7.2.4. Reflexive 7.2.5. Reciprocal 7.2.5.1. NPs as evidence of intransitivity in reciprocal verbs 7.2.5.2. Non-third person reciprocal constructions 7.2.5.3. Phonological obfuscation of ki morphemes 7.2.5.4. Faux ki 7.3. The semantics of ki 7.3.1. Reflexive possessive 7.3.2. Reflexive possessive KI 7.3.3 Dative and benefactive KI 7.4. Animacy 7.5. Lexicalized ki 7.6. A paradigm of ki morphemes: the verb oyákA + ki 8. Motion verbs 8.1. Introduction 8.2. The come-go system 8.2.1. come-go verbs in conversation 8.2.2. Short-term bases 8.2.2.1 Base shift 8.2.3. come-go verbs in narrative 8.2.3.1. A shift of base 8.2.3.2. A shift of deictic center 8.2.4. Metonymy of ‘progress’ and ‘arrive’ 8.2.5. Markedness of the departure verbs 8.2.5.1. Punctual 8.2.5.2. Perfect 8.2.6. Short distance and departure verbs 8.2.7. Special uses of iyáyA 8.2.8. Motion verbs that fall just outside the come-go system 8.2.8.1. iyÁ ‘go: travel with no specified destination’ 8.2.8.2. Non-point-to-point outbound travel: yÁ and ú ‘go, be going’ 8.3. The bring-take system 9. Enclitics and postverbal particles 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Descriptions 9.2.1. Enclitics 9.2.1.1. hA Continuative/progressive (cont) 9.2.1.2. :kA Durative (dur) 9.2.1.3. pi Plural (pl) 9.2.1.4. na Diminutive (dim) 9.2.1.5. ktA Potential (pot) 9.2.1.6. s’A Habitual 9.2.1.7. šį, ken Negation 9.2.1.8.-ȟtįyą Intensifier, superlative; ‘very much so,’ 9.2.1.9-s Exhortative; ‘let’s do X’ 9.2.2. Postverbal particles 9.2.2.1. céʔe ~ ce Habitual 9.2.2.2. cʰa ‘probably; it must be the case’ 9.2.2.3. cʰéyakA Deontic modality: obligation ‘should, ought to’ 9.2.2.4. epcá ‘I think, it seems, apparently’ 9.2.2.5. kʰó Intensifier: criticism, ridicule, indignation 9.2.2.6. kʰóš ‘anyway, nonetheless; even if, no matter what’ 9.2.2.7. kos ‘as if,’ pretending 9.2.2.8. otʰíʔįka ~ otʰíyįka ~ otʰáʔįka ‘I think, it seems to me’ 9.2.2.9. stéya ‘appear to be, seem to be’ 9.2.2.10. štéȟ ~ stéȟ ‘as if, in such a manner, like unto’ 9.2.2.11. he Interrogative 9.2.2.12. Imperatives 9.2.2.12.1. wo Male singular imperative 9.2.2.12.2. po Plural male imperative 9.2.2.12.3.-m Gender neutral plural imperative 9.2.2.13. hį́n Confirmation: ‘right? isn’t it?’ 9.2.2.14. Quotatives 9.2.2.14.1 hųštá ‘it is said; so they tell it’ 9.2.2.14.2. káya ~káa ~káyapi ‘reported speech: they say, it is said’ 9.2.2.15. Declarative markers 9.2.2.15.1.-c Gender neutral declarative marker 9.2.2.15.2. no Male declarative marker 9.2.2.15.3. sten Female declarative marker 9.2.2.15.4. Glottal stop (ʔ) Gender neutral declarative marker 9.2.2.15.5. Aspirated glottal stop (ʔʰ ) Joking marker 9.2.3. Enclitics of uncertain position 9.2.3.1. cʰųna ~ cʰuna Repeated action 9.2.3.2 kacʰa ‘as if!’; bad, unlikely’ 9.2.4. Postverbal particles of uncertain position 9.2.4.1. ų́kʰaš ~ ųkʰáš, ųkš Optative modality: ‘I wish; if only’ 9.2.4.2. wácʰi Prospective, intentive 9.2.5. Degree of certainty 10. Determiners 10.1. Introduction 10.2.Definite and indefinite marking 10.3.Demonstratives 10.4. Quantifiers 10.4.1. ‘both’ 10.4.1.1. nųpʰín ~ nųpʰį́ ‘both’ 10.4.1.2. anų́k ‘both, both sides, reciprocal’ 10.4.2. žé wós, neyós ~ niyós ‘both of them’ 10.4.3. cónana ‘a few; a little bit’ 10.4.4. iyúha and iyúhana ‘all’ 10.4.5. nówa, kʰówa ‘all’ 10.4.6. ótA ‘many, a lot; much’ 10.5. Partitives 10.5.1. apá ‘some, some of; most’ 10.5.2. cʰokán ‘half’ 10.5.3. etáhą ‘some, some of’ 10.5.4. tóna ‘some; how much, how many’ 10.5.5. tákuni ~ tákuna ‘none’ (inanimate reference) 10.5.6. táku ‘(not) any’ (negative reference) 10.5.7. tuwéni ~ tuwéna ‘no, no one, not any, none’ (human reference) 10.5.8. wąžíniȟ ‘none, not one’ 10.6. Numbers 10.6.1. Cardinal numbers 10.6.2. Ordinal numbers 10.7. Order of demonstratives relative to quantifiers and partitives 11. Syntax 11.1. Simple Sentences 11.1.1. Canonical word order 11.1.2. Maximum structure of the simple sentence 11.2. Negation 11.3. Yes-no questions 11.4. Wh-questions (“t-words”) 11.5. Noun phrases 11.5.1. Possessive modifier tʰáwa ‘be one’s; belong to someone’ 11.5.2. Stative verbs as nominals 11.6. Verb constructions 11.6.1. Passive constructions 11.6.2. Modal verbs 11.6.2.1. Quasi-modal verb knÁ ‘find to be; to sense’ 11.6.2.1.1 Quasi-modal verb knÁ ‘find to be; to sense’ 11.6.2.1.2 Quasi-modal verb ší ‘to order to do’ 11.6.2.2 Auxiliary verbs 11.6.2.2.1. ʔų́ ‘do continuously’ 11.6.2.2.2. kʰíya Causative (caus) 11.6.2.2.3. kʰúwa ‘keep doing’ (repet) 11.6.2.2.4. wų́ka ~wą́ka Repetitive (repet) 11.6.2.2.5. áyA 11.6.2.2.5.1. Stative áyA ‘become’ 11.6.2.2.5.2. Active áyA ‘continue doing’ 11.6.2.2.6. híkná ‘spontaneous action or movement 11.6.2.2.7. iyáya ‘gradual’ 11.6.2.2.8. yąká ~ yįká ~ hįká continuous (cont) 11.6.2.2.9 yeyÁ ‘propel’ 11.6.2.4. Adverbial verbal complements 11.7. Postpositional phrases 11.8. Coordination 11.8.1. Juxtaposition 11.8.2. Conjunctions 11.8.2.1. hį́k ~ hį́kna ‘and’ 11.8.2.2. kʰó ‘also, too’ 11.8.2.3. nakų́ ‘also, and more, in addition, furthermore’ 11.8.2.4. eštá ‘or, either’ 11.8.2.5. kaʔéca ‘and then; but then’ 11.8.2.6. tukʰá~ ųkʰá ‘but’ 11.8.2.7. okʰá ‘even so, anyway’ 11.8.2.8. cʰén ‘and then, therefore’ 11.8.2.9. Adverbial suffix cʰehą 11.8.3. Logical connectives 11.8.3.1. Logical connectives: Listing 11.8.3.2. Logical connectives: Result 11.9. Subordinate clauses 11.9.1. Complement clauses (comp) 11.9.2. Adverbial clauses 11.9.3 Relative clauses (rel) 11.9.4. Subordinating conjunction cʰén 11.9.5. No recursion 11.10. Right dislocation of constituents 11.12. Ellipsis 11.13. Comparison 11.13.1. Quantitative: more/less 11.13.2. Qualitative: alike/different Appendices 1. Big Snake 2. Įktómi and Fox 3. Crow Belt Ceremony 4. Instrumental prefixes 5. Orthographic equivalencies 6. Idioms 7. Consultants References

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