With ‘the scientific method’, Descartes laid the foundations of modern rationalist science. This book scrutinises its implementation in different sciences and shows its limitations by guiding readers through the history of key concepts developed for explorations of matter, energy, life, psyche, culture, language and society over the last 400 years. Central are concepts for studying relations and meta-relations between entities to uncover their structures, functioning and development. The book presents a transdisciplinary meta-paradigm for holistic research on individuals and their multi-reality ‘worlds’ considering phenomena from all domains of life. Its multi-framework structure integrates the perspectives of ontology, logic, epistemology, methodology and disciplinary meta-theories that together form an all-encompassing system of interrelated and more complex, non-linear and transformative ways of thinking and empirical practice. These are necessary to overcome Cartesian binary thinking, to establish unified systems of knowledge, and to reconnect the different sciences with one another and with philosophy.
Chapter 1. Method-Centrism in Psychology: A Recipe for Continued Crises.- Part I – Universe, science and method.- Chapter 2. Descartes’ Rational Thought and the Non-Living World: Order, Simplicity and Certainty in Newtonian Mechanics and Chemistry but Disorder, Contradictions and Complexity in Thermodynamics, Quantum Physics and Astrophysics.- Chapter 3. Evolution of Living Organisms: Self-Organisation, Creative Emergence, Behaviour and Continuous Dynamic Development Require Concepts of Complex Causal Relations, Teleology, Degeneracy and Pluripotency.- Chapter 4. Psychical Systems: Abstract Organisation, Uncoupled from the Physico-Chemical laws, Enables the Emergence of Higher-Order Coordination and Intentional, Future-Oriented Agents with an Own Individuality.- Chapter 5. Socio-Cultural and Semiotic Worlds: Complex Sign-Mediated Organisation of Individuals in Society Enables Exchange Beyond the Here–and–Now, Rapid Innovation and Scientific Inquiry.- Chapter 6. Psychology’s Rigid Ideal of ‘The Scientific Method’: Outdated and Unfit for its Complex Study Phenomena but Institutionalised in its Established Research Practices.- Part II – The Transdisciplinary Philosophy-of Science Meta-Paradigm for Research on Individuals (TPS-Paradigm).- Chapter 7. Transdisciplinarity and Complexity Thinking: Transformative Ways of Thinking to Explore the Roots of Knowledge Generation and to Develop a Unity of Knowledge Across Sciences.- Chapter 8. Overcoming Dualisms, Reductionism and Method-Centrism: Multivalent (Non-Binary) Logics, Relational and Meta-Relational Thinking Underlying Dialectics, Complementarity, Complementary Relations and Ontological Theories of Levels of Reality.- Chapter 9. Scientia non est individuorum? Strategies of Scientific Inquiry, Knowledge Generalisation and Theory Construction and the Integrative Multi-Framework Structures of Science That Underlie the Cycle of Research Activities.
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